Linguistic Diversity and Inequality
INTERNATIONAL CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
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Linguistic Diversity and Inequality
Funding for this project provided
by U.S. Department of Education,
Undergraduate International Studies and Foreign Language
Program
The new century promises to bring the meaning of internationalization into each and every one of our students' lives. The globe has become a very small place indeed as a result of instantaneous communication, convenient travel, and interdependent commerce. As we train the region's future employees to lead the way into this era of increased international trade, they should be aware of the cultural and linguistic differences between people and nations.
The goal of this module is to introduce these concepts to students in the Social Sciences in an interactive learning method. The following curriculum can be used as a complete module or as individual lessons interspersed throughout courses in Sociology and Anthropology in which the discussion of diversity is presented.
Applications:
Courses and units that would benefit from this module include:
Introduction to Sociology
- "Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity"
- "Inequalities of Gender and Age"
- "Social Stratification"
- "Politics and the Economy"
- "Social Change"
Multicultural Issues
- "Cross-cultural Studies of Majority-Minority Relations"
- "Origins and Causes of Ethnic Inequality"
Introduction to Anthropology
- "Evolution"
- "The Concept of Culture"
- "Communication and Language"
- "The Rise of the State and Complex Society"
- "Sex, Gender, and Culture"
- "Analyzing Sociocultural Systems"
- "Culture Change"
- "Global Industrialism and Native Peoples"
- "Global Industrialism and Non-Western Peoples"
- "Contemporary Global Trends"
- "Applied Anthropology"
Linguistic Diversity and Inequality
- Culture
- Ethnocentrism
- Cultural Relativism
- Language
- Gestural v. Spoken
- Evolution of Speech
- Linguistics
- Historical
- Comparative
- Social
- Linguistic Anthropology
- Blending of Fields
- Holism and Relativism
- Linguistic Relativity v.
Universal Language
- Pre-test Exercise: Narrative Relativity
- Universalism
- Chomsky’s Deep Structure
- Berlin-Kay Color Terms
- Linguistic Relativity
- Whorfian Theory
- Recent research on color terms
- Post-test Exercise: Linguistic Relativity
- Social Stratification /
Colonization / Globalization
- Colonization and Political Hegemony
- Lingua Franca
- marginalization of indigenous languages
- linguistic tenacity
- What's Lost?
- loss of language = loss of culture
- loss of culture = destruction of environment
- Case Studies
- Linguistic Survival
- Multilingualism, Diglossia, and Code Switching
- Pidgin Languages, Creoles
- Cross-Cultural Communication
- Language Planning
- Formalizing Bilingual Identity
- Intercultural Communication
- Closing Exercise - Critical Moments Case Studies on Bilingualism
Linguistic Diversity and Inequality
Section Descriptions
- Ethnocentrism
- Cultural Relativism
Summary/Objectives:
A brief review of the concept of culture should precede any discussion of language. It is necessary to convey the concept of ethnocentrism in this presentation, perhaps using example or an exercise to elicit feedback from the students revolving around the issue of unconscious cultural preconceptions. Cultural relativism should then be introduced, emphasizing it as a goal of ethical social science research.
Sources: (see Appendix F for complete references)
- Ember & Ember
- McQuown
- Schultz & Lavenda
- Scupin & DeCorse
- Seelye
- any Sociology or Anthropology introductory text
- Gestural v. Spoken Language
- Evolution of Speech
Summary/Objectives:
The concept of linguistic diversity and inequality cannot be presented without a brief introduction to the concept of human language in general, including its evolution and importance in the development of human culture. Discussions of gestural as well as spoken language, the anatomy of speech, and language’s place alongside bipedal locomotion and pair bonding in human evolution should all be included.
Sources: (see Appendix F for complete references)
- Brenneis/Macaulay
- Blunt/Sanches
- Ember & Ember
- Newmeyer
- Salzmann
- Schultz & Lavenda
- Scupin & DeCorse
- *also refer to Appendix A for reference to Figures in Salzmann
- Historical Linguistics
- Descriptive Linguistics
- Sociolinguistics
Summary/Objectives:
A short presentation on the various subfields of linguistics could be included as background information. A discussion of historical linguistics should include the method of tracing the development of languages and the attempt to reconstruct common ancestral tongues. Descriptive linguistics can be noted briefly, with mention of the complexity of all human languages regardless of technological development. Sociolinguistics should be emphasized in this section, concentrating on speech differences reflecting social class, gender, and occupational backgrounds.
Sources: (see Appendix F for complete references)
- Ember & Ember
- McQuown
- Palmer
- Salzmann
- Schultz & Lavenda
- Scupin & DeCorse
- *also refer to Appendix A for reference to Figures/Tables in Salzmann
Section IV – Linguistic Anthropology
- Blending of Fields
- Holism & Relativism
Summary/Objectives:
This section can be incorporated into the module if it is used in an Introductory Anthropology course. The chapters on Language, Culture, and the History of Anthropology generally discuss the field of linguistics and its use by early anthropologists in cultural descriptions. A key concept to convey in any study of Anthropology is its focus on holistic interpretations and the importance of bias-free accounts (relativism).
Sources: (see Appendix F for complete references)
- Duranti
- Ember & Ember
- McQuown
- Palmer
- Salzmann
- Schultz & Lavenda
- Scupin & DeCorse
Section V – Linguistic Relativity v. Universal Language
- Pre-test Exercise (optional)
- Universalism
- Chomsky’s Deep Structure
- Berlin-Kay Color Terms
- Linguistic Relativity
- Whorfian Theory
- Recent research on color terms
- Post-test Exercise (optional)
Summary/Objectives:
After the pre-test exercise is completed (optional – see below), the fairly complex concepts of a single universal human language and linguistic relativity can be introduced. In discussing universalism, Chomsky’s deep structure theory should be presented with information from Diamond’s article "Reinventions of Human Language" (available through EBSCOhost, see Appendix C). Berlin-Kay’s color term research can also be used to illustrate the possibility of a universal human language that is pre-wired genetically. To contrast universalism, Benjamin Whorf’s research into linguistic relativity can be cited, including examples of the cultural variable of naming concepts such as snow and time.
Sources: (see Appendix F for complete references)
- Arteaga
- Brenneis/Macaulay
- Duranti
- Ember & Ember
- Graham
- Hymes
- Lieberson
- McQuown
- Newmeyer
- Palmer
- Salzmann
- Schultz & Lavenda
- Scupin & DeCorse
- Swadesh
- Whorf
- *also refer to Appendix A for references to Tables/Figures
Pre-test Exercise: Narrative Relativity
Have the students write a short (2-3 paragraph) narrative on their perceptions of a common experience. This could include, but not be limited to: the first day of class; the classroom environment that particular day, including the instructor’s physical presence; driving to class that day; the weather outside; a trip to the grocery store. Limit writing time to ten (10) minutes. Assign students to small groups of 2-4 people. Ask them to discuss their narratives, paying attention to similarities and differences in descriptive terms and perceptions. Have one student in each group record these comparisons. Reassemble into a large group and ask each recorder to report his/her group’s observations.
Discussion could revolve around the differences in descriptive narratives within a single culture prior to introducing the concept of linguistic similarities and differences between cultures.
Post-test Exercise: Linguistic Relativity
According to Seelye (1984:55 - see Appendix F for complete reference), "(o)ne of the many requisites to ‘thinking like a native,’ besides fluency in the target language, is the conditioned ability to visualize culturally appropriate images which language evokes". One goal of introducing linguistic relativity is to encourage students to attempt to see the world through the lens of another culture. Seelye suggests the simple exercise of assigning a common word to the students (which can be selected from the 100 Word Core Vocabulary developed by Swadesh in 1955). The students are then directed to collect images from magazines, the Internet, or their own photographs that visually define the word/concept in culturally diverse ways. (Possible words: dinner; man; woman; home).
Section VI – Social Stratification/Colonization/Globalization
- Social Stratification/Colonization/Globalization
- Colonization and Political Hegemony
- Lingua Franca
- marginalization of indigenous languages
- linguistic tenacity
- What’s Lost?
- loss of language = loss of culture
- loss of culture = destruction of environment
- Case Studies
Summary/Objectives:
Introduce general concepts of social stratification, colonization, and globalization from a sociological and/or anthropological perspective as they relate to political hegemony and domination of one culture by another. Also include the impact of the global marketplace on indigenous cultures, including language marginalization as a result of commercial development. It is possible to equate the accelerated loss of indigenous cultures to legal and economic pressures that demand the use of the dominant culture’s language, among other adaptations. Examples can be given which attest to the ecological dangers that arise when an indigenous knowledge base is lost through language extinction. References to case studies detailing political hegemony and language loss and/or competition in South Africa, Peru, Greece, and Egypt are included in Appendix B.
Sources: (see Appendix F for complete references)
- Arteaga
- Blount/.Sanches
- Brenneis/Macaulay
- Ember & Ember
- Haarmann
- Kalantzis/Cope/Slade
- Newmeyer
- Schach
- Schultz & Lavenda
- Scupin & DeCorse
- Williams
- *also refer to Appendix A for reference to Figure on "Interactional Accomplishment of Discrimination" in Salzmann
Section VII – Linguistic Survival
- Linguistic Survival
- Multilingualism, Diglossia, and Code Switching
- Pidgin Languages, Creoles
Summary/Objectives:
Historically, cultural contact has led to subordination and/or cooperation, assimilation, and acculturation. This has become increasingly apparent as a result of accelerated globalization. Linguistically, cultural responses have included: multilingualism (speaking two or more languages), diglossia (speaking multiple dialects), and code switching (speaking the appropriate dialect within diverse contexts). Long-term contact and subordination have resulted in the development of pidgins (simple blended languages used for commerce) and creoles (full-fledged languages with complex grammars which evolve from pidgins). Emphasis should be placed on the fact that minority cultures have generally made these adaptations in order to survive in the face of external economic and political pressures.
Sources: (see Appendix F for complete references)
- Arteaga
- Blount/.Sanches
- Breton
- Duranti
- Ember & Ember
- Frake
- Haarmann
- Hymes
- Lieberson
- Newmeyer
- Salzmann
- Schultz & Lavenda
- Scupin & DeCorse
- Thomasen & Kaufman
- *also refer to Appendix A for reference to Figure on "Languages that Shaped
- African American (Black) English" in Salzmann
Section VIII – Cross-Cultural Communication
- Language Planning
- Formalizing Bilingual Identity
- Intercultural Communication
- Closing Exercise
Summary/Objectives:
Education, the courts, and global commerce are just three areas that will continue to feel the impact of linguistic decisions in the future. As global travel and communication increase, contact between speakers of mutually unintelligible languages becomes more likely. The United States is not the sole nation of immigrants – culturally and linguistically diverse populations cross ethnic and national borders to follow economic opportunities and flee persecution the world over. The challenge for individuals involved in the global marketplace is to incorporate these vast numbers of people in a productive way – which may include transferring their cultural and linguistic traditions – not mandatory assimilation. This will require an increased emphasis on language planning, on formalized bilingual identities, and on intercultural communication.
Closing Exercise: Case Studies on Bilingualism (see Appendix D)
These cases can be used in tandem or alone to present the issue of bilingualism as it applies to workers and students in the United States whose primary language is not English.
Sources: (see Appendix F for complete references)
- Blount/.Sanches
- Byram
- Dresser
- Ember & Ember
- Fishman
- Grenoble and Whaley
- Haarmann
- Hoffmann
- Lieberson
- Salzmann
- Scupin & DeCorse
Linguistic
Diversity and Inequality
Appendices
Appendix A - Figures, Tables, Maps
Figures and Tables that could be utilized from the Salzmann text: (page references are from the Second Edition):
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Appendix B - Linguistic Case Studies
- Links to article abstracts included when available
| Chick, J. Keith (1985). The interactional
accomplishment of discrimination in South Africa.
Language in Society 14:299-326. Haeri, Niloofar (1997). The reproduction of symbolic capital: language, state, and class in Egypt. Current Anthropology 38(5):795-816. Herzfeld, Michael (1997). Political philology: everyday consequences of grandiose grammars. Anthropological Linguistics 39(3):351-375. Abstract Mannheim, Bruce (1984). Una nación accoralada: Southern Peruvian Quecha language planning and politics in historical perspective. Language in Society 13:291-309. |
- Links to article abstracts included when available
| Bernard, H.
Russell (1992). Commentary: Preserving language
diversity. Human Organization 51(1):82-89.
(Comments by a leading figure in the field.) Grin, François (1992). Towards a threshold of minority language survival. Kyklos 45:69-97. (Assesses the potential for minority language survival in the face of external pressure and language shift.) Hill, Jane H. (1998). Language, race, and white public space. American Anthropologist 100(3): 680-689. Abstract Hofling, Charles Andrew (1998). Indigenous linguistic revitalization and outsider interaction: The Itzaj Maya case. Human Organization 22(1):108-116. Jernudd, Björn H., and Elizabeth Thuan (1984). Naming fish: a problem exploration. Language in Society 13:235-244. (Reports on a lack of perception of the interrelatedness of the three fish-naming systems: the scientific, the common, and the folk naming systems.) Wierzbicka, Anna (1985). A semantic metalanguage for a crosscultural comparison of speech acts and speech genres. Language in Society 14:491-514. (Author claims that analyses of speech acts and speech genres carried out in terms of English folk labels are ethnocentric and unsuitable for crosscultural comparison.) Winford, Donald (1985). The concept of "diglossia" in Caribbean creole situations. Language in Society 14:345-356.
Editors (1991). Reinventions of Human Language. Natural History May1991:22-27. (Discusses the brain's blueprint for language.) Fishman, Joshua A. ((1998) The new linguistic order. Foreign Policy 113:26-39. (The continued global use and spread of English.) Muhlhausler, Peter (1994). Babel revisited. UNESCO Courier 47:16-21. ("Linguistic diversity is a resource whose value has been widely underestimated".) Raloff, J. (1995). Languishing languages: cultures at risk. Science News 147:117.
López, Antonio de la Torre (1998). Chanob Vun ta Batz'i K'op of Sna Jtz'ibajom: an alternative education in our native languages. Cultural Survival Quarterly 22(1):44-45. (Issues of multilingualism in Chiapas.) Peña, Guillermina Herrera (1998). Indigenous legal translators: challenges of a university program for the Maya of Guatemala. Cultural Survival Quarterly 22(1):53-56. Smith, Linda Tuhiwai (1998). The educational and cultural implications of Maori language revitalization. Cultural Survival Quarterly 22(1):27-28. |
Appendix D - Critical Moments Case Studies
EDITOR’S NOTE to Case Study Users:
Critical Moments cases are intended to give voice to those individuals who are often unheard. As such they represent a slice of reality, as the individual perceives it. The cases are for small group discussion, which must be carefully planned and facilitated so those group participants improve their critical thinking skills and their ability to consider different perspectives. Without good facilitation the case studies can become dangerous stereotypes by, for example, portraying the protagonist and/or the antagonist as good or evil. Good facilitation requires diverse skills acquired through training and reflective practice. Consequently, these cases should not be used by anyone who has not mastered good facilitation skills.
Appendix E - Slide Presentation
Appendix F - Suggested Bibliography
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Appendix G - Internet Resources
| The political and other opinions expressed on the WWW pages listed are the authors’, and are not necessarily shared by Metropolitan Community College |
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created by Gary Toth last updated 3/24/2005
comments: gtoth@mccneb.edu